MORNING SESSION

MONACO BLUE INITIATIVE
The great depths, a new biodiversity to be protected

The great expeditions (1868-1951) showed that the oceans harbour life everywhere, even the most extreme depths. Though sometimes scattered and generally sparse, there was a tremendous diversity of shapes and organisations. The development of manned submersibles in the 1950s, then the very rapid evolution of underwater intervention technologies at the end of the 20th century enabled biologists to understand that the great depths were far from being homogeneous and unaffected by seasonality, but were rather like a mosaic of habitats dependant on surface events (plankton flowering, mortality of large vertebrates, continental debris, etc). Assessment of the biological diversity of this still largely unexplored biotope is a perilous exercise; today, it is estimated that our knowledge covers 1% to 15% of marine faunal species. Every year, over 1,600 marine species unknown to science are described and many of the species that remain to be discovered live in this immense world of darkness that covers two-thirds of our Planet. Diversity and the functions of the deep-sea microbial world are even less well known.

In 1977, the unexpected discovery at depths of 2,500 metres off the coast of the Galápagos Islands of exuberant populations around hot springs profoundly challenged our vision of life in the abysses and the primordial role of the microbial echelon. Far from sunlight, this ecosystem showed itself to be extraordinarily productive in using energy from geochemical fluids. Boosted by this discovery, undersea exploration then turned to other oceanic dorsals and continental margins, along the Pacific fire belt, as well as undersea guyots. It revealed the existence of new unstable fragmented ecosystems linked to fluid emissions and led to studying deep-sea coral reefs with great biological wealth as well as great vulnerability. It also identified the key role of organic debris (carcasses of large vertebrates, wood and plants) in the diet of deep-sea ecosystems. It made it possible to study the limits of life in very acid or reducing marine environments, at very high temperature and pressure. It also led to discovering the existence of microbial life in marine sediments beyond one-kilometre depths. Recent estimates lead us to believe that the oceans contain over 50% of our Planet's biomass. We can be certain that, today, we have lifted only a corner of the veil and many more discoveries await us.

MONACO BLUE INITIATIVE
Large marine species,
the keystone of the marine ecosystem

For a half century, fisheries have been tracking down great marine predators - sharks, bluefin tuna, marlin, cod, groupers, swordfish - with unprecedented perseverance and intensity. Before then, these large species dominated fauna made up of small fishes (like sardines and anchovies) which struggled to survive despite their renewal rates. Sharks were omnipresent in coral reefs, cod in coastal ecosystems in the northwest Atlantic. At the time, the abundance of these large predators was two to ten times, even up to a hundred times more than now. The situation is overwhelming: today's oceans are virtually empty of predators. The effects of such overfishing can be observed in the trophic interactions in many global ecosystems and disruption of their functioning. Such disruption is documented in the scientific literature under the name trophic cascades (Frank et al. 2006). It was believed that trophic cascades existed only in closed environments, like lakes and coastal ecosystems. It was not possible for researchers to observe large-scale disruption in open environments, whether coastal or in the open sea. This turned out to be far more widespread than had been thought and marine ecosystems more profoundly affected than it seemed. An example of the cascade effect caused by the disappearance of these oceanic species was observed in the Caribbean and the Pacific (Stevens et al., 2000): overfishing of sharks led to an increase in the number of rays and octopus, resulting in a drastic drop in the number of spiny lobster and sea scallop, two major sources of revenue for neighbouring coastal populations. In Canada, where cod disappeared in 1992, Kenneth Frank (2008) examined the impact of this disappearance on other resources in the ecosystem. Fishermen have noted that pelagic fishes - herring, mackerel and capelin - and other species further down the trophic chain, like shrimp, lobsters and crabs, were far more abundant. This disruption of the ecosystem can be attributed to the absence of cod, the main historic predator. For many centuries, it provided for stable halieutic production in one of the world's most productive ecosystems, whose functioning was disrupted by its disappearance, which enabled shrimp, crabs and pelagic fishes to proliferate in its absence.
With such sudden decline of large predators, marine ecosystems become more unstable and less productive, resulting in the disappearance of many traditional fisheries.

Current situation:

Overexploitation and inefficient management of stocks
- Technological improvement of fishing methods (deep-sea fishing, location from the air, specialised sonar...)
- Destructive, inappropriate and non-selective fishing methods (trawling, excessive long-lining, drift nets...)
- Excessive bycatch (25% of total global tonnage)
- Disregard for minimum size and species' reproduction periods
- Inherent vulnerability of great marine predators (slow growth, late sexual maturation, low fertility...)
Lack of consensus on fishing regulations and failure of their enforcement
- Failure of the last ICCAT (International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas) meeting for the conservation of bluefin tuna
- Inadequacy of enforcement of different regulations on "shark finning"
- Powerful fishing lobbies slowing the institution of ICES (International Council for the Exploration of the Sea) recommendations
- Lack of enforcement of international regulations on migratory species recommended by the CMS (Convention on Migratory Species ) and CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna) recommendations
- Lack of scientific information on the status of stocks of target populations, which make it difficult for the parties concerned to make decisions
SHORT-TERM GOALS :

General:

- Supporting and promoting countries' proposals to include new endangered species in CITES lists and appendices and enforce resolutions concerning the existing list
- Setting up ecological labels for different fisheries and raising awareness among distributors and consumers (e.g., agrifood companies, restaurateurs, school cafeterias...)
- Adopting and enforcing as quickly as possible ICES recommendations on Total Admissible Capture (TAC) levels for the species endangered by overfishing.
- Instituting specific fishing methods adapted to target species to reduce bycatch to a minimum and return large predators caught accidentally to the sea alive
- Guaranteeing national and international legislation to protect and conserve species of sharks and other large marine predators listed in the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the Barcelona and Bern Conventions. Adding to the list shark species considered to be on the verge of extinction or seriously endangered by the IUCN Shark Specialist Group
- Including new endangered species to the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and enforcing respect of existing resolutions
- Setting up an Action Plan for sharks and other endangered species on a regional, national and international scale
Instituting an Endangered Species Recovery Plan as well as a Management Plan for species targeted for fishing.
- Facilitating scientific assessment of the situation of populations of great marine predators on a regional, national and international scale
- Improving collection of commercial statistics
- Restricting international trade to sustainable levels
- Creating new Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Conservation Corridors for migratory species

Concerning sharks:

- Promoting more efficient systems to control "shark finning" within Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs) and enforcing existing sanctions
- Rapidly encouraging changes in EU regulations on "shark finning" by requiring shark fins and carcases to be unloaded at the same time in the same port. This regulation should be enforced internationally
- Setting up an independent system of observers onboard fishing vessels
- Improving the quality of information on species and the numbers of sharks unloaded. Creating reliable databases.
- Ceasing to grant special fishing licences entitling fishermen to remove fins from sharks at sea
- Preparing and implementing an International Action Plan for Sharks including: establishing TACs (Total Allowable Catch) recommended by the ICES, protection of endangered species, reducing bycatch, implementing recovery plans for declining species and management plans for other species targeted by the fishing industry
- Improving international cooperation on information exchange and the harmonisation of cross-border management measures
- Organising information campaigns in cooperation with the health sector on the toxicity of shark flesh because of its extremely high levels of methylmercury and other pollutants.